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| Philotes sonorensis | |
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Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Clade: | Pancrustacea |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Lycaenidae |
| Genus: | Philotes Scudder, 1876 |
| Species: | P. sonorensis
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| Binomial name | |
| Philotes sonorensis | |
| Synonyms | |
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Philotes is a genus of butterflies in the family Lycaenidae. Philotes is a monotypic genus containing only Philotes sonorensis, the Sonoran blue or stonecrop blue, found in North America in California and Baja California.[2] The habitat consists of rocky washes, outcrops and cliffs in deserts.[3] These habitats are associated with succulent host plants of the genus Dudleya.
The wingspan of an adult is 22–25 mm.[2] Males are predominantly blue while females are darker with reduced blue scaling.
The larvae feed on Dudleya species, including D. cymosa, D. lanceolata and D. saxosa. They bore into the leaves of their host plant. Chrysalids hibernate under stones.[3]
Description
[edit]Adults are small lycaenid butterflies with a wingspan of 22-25 mm.[2] Males are iridescent blue on upper wing surfaces. Females are darker and exhibit reduced blue scaling. Both have orange and black markings of various size and intensity as a result of different populations. Some southern California populations have reported to being larger and more boldly marked than those from central California.[4]
Taxonomy
[edit]Molecular phylogeny reconstructed a tree of the genus Pseudophilotes and identified a clade with Philotes sonorensis and Scolitantides orion as the closest relatives.[5]
Philotes sonorensis has an important role in the classification of North American lycaenid butterflies.[6]
Distribution and habitat
[edit]Many populations of Philotes sonorensis have been documented throughout California and Baja California, showing that the butterflies are restricted to habitat areas that are suitable for their needs.[4] The species typically favors arid habitats that contain their succulent host plants.[7] These habitats usually contain the environmental characteristics of rocky canyons, washes, cliffs, and outcrops that contribute to the growth of Dudleya.
Ecology
[edit]Philotes sonorensis ecology is aligned with succulent plants of the genus Dudleya. Its larvae use varying host species, such as D. cymosa, D. lanceolata and D. saxosa. Larvae utilize a specialized feeding strategy that targets the internal leaves of Dudleya, which benefits the larvae in protection from predators.[6]
After females lay eggs on these host plants, larvae fully develop within the leaf tissues before pupating in other protected regions, such as on the bottom of their host plants' dead leaves or under stones within their habitat. Pupae stay dormant until late winter and spring (February through June) where the environment becomes ideal for adult emergence, which also happens to be associated with the growth period of their host plants.[6]
Behavior
[edit]An experiment took place in the San Gabriel Canyon of southern California to investigate movement behavior of Philotes sonorensis. The species was captured and marked to determine whether they would return to the original capture locations or randomly disperse. Butterflies that were removed from close habitats did return to the site of their capture at greater rates than hypothesized.[8] It was suggested that Philotes sonorensis is a more sedentary species that behaves in correlation to local habitat characteristics (site fidelity).
Evolution
[edit]Philotes sonorensis is one of five Nearctic species in the genus Philotes.[4] A study was completed using nuclear and mitochrondrial DNA markers to determine a possible relationship between different species in lycaenid genera. The result led to a deeper understanding of where Philotes lies in the family Lycaenidae when concerned with evolution.[9]
Host-plant specialization is a suggested reason for diversification among related Philotes lineages pertaining to ecological adaptation and host shifts.[10]
Conservation
[edit]Philotes sonorensis, similar to lycaenid butterflies in general, are dependent on specialized ecological interactions (specifically to host plants) and habitats that are localized. Habitat disturbance has been documented for some southern California populations, so focus on conserving areas where the Dudleya plant thrives is crucial.[11]
Subspecies
[edit]- Philotes sonorensis sonorensis. Most often found in California and Baja California.
- †Philotes sonorensis extincta Mattoni, 1989 (upper San Gabriel river wash in southern California). This population in the San Gabriel Mountains was sampled annually for three decades leading to its disappearance in 1970. It was recognized nearly two decades later as a sub-species.[12] This species was also labeled as a conservation concern.[11]
References
[edit]- ^ Philotes at Markku Savela's website on Lepidoptera
- ^ a b c Butterflies and Moths of North America
- ^ a b "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org.
- ^ a b c Shields, O (1973). "Studies on North American Philotes" (PDF). The Allyn Museum of Entomology.
- ^ Todisco, Valentina; Grill, Andrea; Fiedler, Konrad; Gottsberger, Brigitte; Dincă, Vlad; Vodă, Raluca; Lukhtanov, Vladimir; Letsch, Harald (December 2018). "Molecular phylogeny of the Palaearctic butterfly genus Pseudophilotes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) with focus on the Sardinian endemic P. barbagiae". BMC Zoology. 3 (1): 4. doi:10.1186/s40850-018-0032-7. ISSN 2056-3132.
- ^ a b c Langston, R (1965). "Distribution and hosts of five Philotes in California" (PDF). Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society.
- ^ Langston, R (1969). "Philotes of North America: synonymic list and distribution" (PDF). Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society.
- ^ Keller Jr, EC (1966). "Preferential return of artificially displaced butterflies". Animal Behaviour.
- ^ Ugelvig, LV (2011). "A phylogenetic revision of the Glaucopsyche section with special focus on the Phengaris-Maculinea clade". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.
- ^ Pratt, G (1994). "Evolution of Euphilotes by seasonal and host shifts". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society.
- ^ a b New, TR (1993). "Conservation biology of Lycaenidae" (PDF). The IUCN Species Survival Commission.
- ^ Lucas, Amy M.; Scholl, Cynthia F.; Murphy, Dennis D.; Tracy, C. Richard; Forister, Matthew L. (July 2014). Leather, Simon R.; DeVries, Phil (eds.). "Geographic distribution, habitat association, and host quality for one of the most geographically restricted butterflies in North America: Thorne's hairstreak (Mitoura thornei )". Insect Conservation and Diversity. 7 (4): 343–354. doi:10.1111/icad.12057. S2CID 86036029.
External links
[edit]
Media related to Philotes sonorensis at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Philotes sonorensis at Wikispecies
